Chan

Asian-American identity, although there were several respondents who insisted on acknowledging both aspects of their identity as Asian Americans and as lesbians or gay men.

In terms of the Model of Homosexual Identity Formation (Cass, 1979), most of the respondents in this study reflected identities of Stage 4 (Identity Acceptance) and Stage 5 (Identity Pride), because they generally accept and are openly proud of their lesbian or gay identities (with some exceptions of nondisclosure to parents). In terms of the ethnic Minority Identity Development Model (Atkinson et al., 1979), most of the respondents reflected strong Asian-American identification and are in Stage 4 (Introspection) and Stage 5 (Synergetic Articulation and Awareness).

Because all of the respondents were solicited from AsianAmerican lesbian and gay organizations and thus may identify more strongly with being Asian American than with being lesbian or gay, these results may not be generalizable to a larger Asian lesbian and gay population. Further studies might include a more random sampling of lesbian and gay Asian Americans, as well as use of quantitative analysis methods, more comprehensive interviews with a larger sample, or both. Finally, some implications for understanding identity development can be derived from the results of this study. The results suggest that the extent to which an individual identifies as Asian American or as lesbian or gay can depend on several factors, including the perceptions of homophobia in the AsianAmerican community, perceptions of racism in the lesbian-gay community, disclosure or nondisclosure of homosexuality to

family and community, and affiliation with the Asian-American and lesbian-gay communities. Identity development is an everchanging process, and individuals may base their identification with one identity or community on their changing needs for support as well as on desires to share cultural factors. Some of these needs are met better by other lesbians or gay men, some by other Asian Americans, some only by other lesbian or gay Asian Americans. Ideally, it seems that individuals who have double and triple minority status feel most complete when they can acknowledge and be accepted for each of their identities as lesbian or gay, as Asian American, and as women or men.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, D.R., Morten, G., & Sue, D.W. (1979). Counseling American minorities. Dubuque, IA: Brown.

Bogdan, R., & Taylor, S.J. (1975). Introduction to qualitative research methods. New York: Wiley.

Cass, V.C. (1979). Homosexuality identity formation: A theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235.

Espin, O. M. (1987). Issues of identity in the psychology of Latina lesbians. In Boston Lesbians Psychologies Collective (Eds.), Lesbian psychologies (pp. 35-51). Urbana: University of Illinois Press. Wooden, W.S., Kawasaki, H., & Mayeda, R. (1983). Lifestyles and identity maintenance among gay Japanese-American males. Alternative Lifestyles, 5, 236-243.

Connie S. Chan is an assistant professor of human services, College of Public and Community Service, University of Massachusetts, Boston. Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to Connie S. Chan, Human Services Center, College of Public and Community Service, University of Massachusetts at Boston, Boston, MA 02125.

JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1989 VOL. 68

Gay Identity Issues Among

Black Americans: Racism, Homophobia, and the Need for Validation

DARRYL K. LOIACANO

There is little available literature on gay and lesbian identity among Black Americans. This exploratory study involved interviewing a total of six Black-American gay men and lesbian women regarding gay identity development issues. Data pertaining to the interviewees' experiences of gay identity development were obtained through a questionnaire of six open-ended questions and an interview with each participant lasting 1 to 2 hours. This article presents some of the significant challenges faced by those who were interviewed regarding their sense of self-acceptance, both as Blacks in the predominantly White gay and lesbian community and as gay men and lesbian women in the predominantly heterosexual Black community. The implications of these issues for future research and counseling intervention are discussed. In this article the term gay identity is generally used in reference to both men and women. When women are being discussed exclusively, however, the term lesbian identity is used.

n our society it is generally assumed that a child born to heterosexual parents will grow up to be heterosexual. Gay identity development can be defined as the process through which an individual progresses from an assumed state of heterosexuality to an open, affirmed state of homosexuality. This process has often been conceptualized in the form of linear stage theories (e.g., Cass, 1979; Minton & McDonald, 1984; Troiden, 1979). Most of these stage models describe a similar progression that includes in the following order: (a) a general sense of feeling different; (b) an awareness of same-sex feelings; (c) a point of crisis in which an individual realizes that his or her feelings can be labeled as homosexual; and (d) an eventual acceptance and integration of one's gay identity. The models generally also outline a list of tasks involved in gay identity development and stress the centrality of interpersonal interactions needed to facilitate this process.

Many authors have outlined differences between men and women that are apparent in gay identity development (e.g., Faderman, 1984; Groves & Ventura, 1983; Schultz & de Monteflores, 1978). Two of the factors thought to contribute to these differences between men and women are gender-role expectations and the influence of the feminist movement on lesbian identity development. Although gender has been considered to some extent, race has seldom been explored. A few authors have explored some of the particular challenges faced by Black Americans who are gay or lesbian (e.g., Cornwell, 1979;

DeMarco, 1983) and have also raised theoretical questions regarding how the added pressure of racism might impact upon these individuals (Icard, 1986).

Writing from the perspective of a Black-American lesbian, Audre Lorde (1984) has described the challenge of having several oppressed identities, of "constantly being encouraged to pluck out some one aspect of [your]self and present this as the meaningful whole, eclipsing or denying the other parts of self" (p. 120). As Lorde explains, it is healthiest for individuals to feel simultaneously accepted in all the important aspects of their identity. For Black-American lesbians, it is often challenging or impossible to find a community that offers this acceptance. Lesbianism is largely considered incompatible with the role expectations of women in the Black community. At the same time, lesbian-supportive communities and social groups often marginalize their Black-American members and do not provide the level of affirmation that White-American members receive.

In writing about Black gay men, Icard (1986) states that they are viewed as "inferior" members of the gay community, and thus do not receive the same degree of "psychological benefits" from the gay community that White gay men receive (p. 89). Accounts of the prejudiced treatment of Blacks in the gay community have been provided by several authors (e.g., DeMarco, 1983; Icard, 1986). Discrimination in admittance to bars, in advertisements, and in employment are all noted. Moreover, racial stereotyping of Black gay men and bias-related standards of beauty set forth by the gay male community also stand in the way of acceptance for Black gay men. Icard (1986) has made one of the most challenging and crucial observations regarding the dual oppression of Black gay men and its influence on gay identity development

The interpersonal relationships that gays experience are critical to the development of a positive sexual identity, particularly during what has been described as the coming-out period. Interpersonal relationships with others who also are gay have been recognized as facilitating congruence intra-psychically as well as interpersonally... For many black gays, however, gay interpersonal relationships do not provide the kinds of positive consequences that have been defined as so important to the closure of the individual's sexual identity. (p. 90) JOURNAL OF COUNSELING & DEVELOPMENT SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1989 VOL. 68